ASFA was enacted to address problems in the foster care system that prevented adoption. Many of these problems arose from an earlier bill, the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980,[1] although they were not expected when that law was passed, as states decided to interpret this law to mean that biological families must be kept together in all cases. [1] The most important legislative change was the amendment by the ASFA of Title IV-E of the Social Security Act concerning financing. The purpose of ASFA is to expedite the judicial process. The main purpose of the law was to reduce the time a child spends in foster care and to expedite the process of releasing children for adoption. ASFA attaches great importance to the safety of the child. It is a shift in focus on family retention and/or the goal of family reunification, regardless of the duration or likelihood of family reunification. AFSA should address issues such as: The law required individual states to comply in order to continue receiving federal funding for the welfare of children. Thus, each State had to adopt laws compatible with ASFA; In practice, these legislative measures were very different. As a result, some States have relied more on the three exceptions in the Act to focus on reunification, while other States have placed greater emphasis on adoption. [4] The Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA, Public Law 105-89) was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on November 19, 1997, after being approved by the United States Congress earlier that month. [1] Women in state prisons are more likely to care for their children while in care, and because incarceration disproportionately affects some families and communities, some grandmothers have to care for multiple grandchildren. This can be financially burdensome and make contact even more difficult.

The majority of people are detained more than 100 miles from their families, and even a single phone call can be prohibitively expensive. On 19 November 1997, the President enacted the Adoption and Family Safety Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-89) to improve child safety, promote adoption and other permanent homes for children in need, and support families. This new Act contains amendments and clarifications in various directives issued under the Adoption Assistance and Child Protection Act (P.L. 96-272), the main federal law enacted in 1980 to assist states in protecting and caring for abused and neglected children. The new law: The ASFA – ASFA date has certain dates, often referred to as the “ASFA date”. These efforts to relax ASFA`s strict guidelines do not prohibit states from terminating parental rights if a judge determines that it is in the best interests of the child to do so. But by giving incarcerated parents the opportunity to advocate for reunification with their children, these states recognize that incarceration alone does not automatically make a person an incapacitated parent for life. New York and Washington recognize that arbitrary separation of parent-child relationships can do more harm than good. Revocation of parental rights (EFA) – An application for deprivation of parental rights must be filed if: (1) the child has been in care for 15 of the last 22 months, (2) the child has been abandoned, i.e. has had no contact with the parent in the last 6 months, or (3) the parent has been convicted of any of the crimes listed above, EXCEPT the Child Welfare League of America, Inc.

440 First Street. NW. Third floor. Washington DC 20001-2085 202/638-2952 ASFA has three built-in exceptions. Parents may be exempted from the 15 months out of 22 period if: Permanency Plan – A written permanency plan must be attached to the petition to verify placement. The permanency plan must consider the five options for terminating a child`s foster care. The five alternatives for permanency are: With the passage of the Federal Adoption and Family Safety Act (ASFA) in 1997, states were automatically required to file a petition to terminate parental rights once a child had been placed in foster care for 15 of the previous 22 months. ASFA`s goal is to prevent children from remaining in foster care indefinitely by making them eligible for adoption after a certain period of time. But these lofty intentions are at odds with the realities of mass incarceration, and the law increases the chances against incarcerated parents trying to uphold their children`s legal rights. Five million children experience the imprisonment of a parent at some point in their lives. As a result, many of these children will live with parents such as grandparents or be placed in foster care. Some of these families will never be legally reunited.

In addition, ASFA marked a fundamental shift in thinking about the best interests of the child by focusing on children`s health and safety concerns and moving away from a policy of reuniting children with their biological parents, regardless of previous abuse. [1] As such, ASFA has been considered the most comprehensive change to the U.S. adoption and foster care system in about two decades. [1] One of ASFA`s main sponsors, Republican Senator John H. Chafee of Rhode Island, said, “We will not continue with the current system, where the needs and rights of birth parents always come first. It is time for us to realize that some families simply cannot and should not be kept together. [1] Compelling reasons for not submitting a request for termination – (This section is contrary to the federal LFSA and can therefore be amended or declared invalid) For more information on ASFA and various government reforms, see: The court may be asked to make a “no reasonable effort” order stating that the Agency does not have to make all reasonable efforts, keep children at home or maintain the child`s legal relationship with the parent. Prior to ASFA, agencies had to make EVERY reasonable effort to maintain “family ties”. One issue that the court MUST consider in the “no reasonable effort” order is whether the domestic violence occurred in the home. In addition, if the following is proven by clear and convincing evidence, the court will make a decision “without reasonable effort”: Notice of hearing requirements – Since under the ASFA, revocation of parental rights can occur when a child is in foster care for 15 of the 22 months (15/22 rule), parents must be notified to ensure they are aware of whether the child is in foster care.

Foster parents, adoptive parents and guardians must also be informed of the proceedings and given the opportunity to be heard. The court may make an order to stay the judgment at any time prior to termination. ASFA also provides foster parents, adoptive parents or relatives caring for foster parents with the subject of ongoing hearings and the opportunity to be heard.

Authority – Who is the author? What makes this person or organization an authoritative source? Ultimately, you need to use internal and external data in ways that meet your organization`s unique needs and goals. For this data to be useful, it must be well organized and easily accessible to the people who analyze it. Too much data can be overwhelming, especially if it`s outdated or inaccurate, which can make it difficult to use this otherwise valuable resource. When an employee is working on a risk management report, they must be able to access risk management data through a reliable information system. When working on claims management, they must be able to access claims management data through a reliable information system. Regardless of the type of data, storing it in a central location will make it easier for your employees to access and organize the information they need. Internal data can be used by any department within a company. From sales and human resources to finance and technology, internal data gives everyone a better insight into the inner workings of the business. Collecting data about your own organization is a much more complicated phenomenon than we suspect. Depending on your project or company report, the event policy can be quite extensive. Internal data can come from a variety of sources and services – sales reports, financial documents, HR information, or elsewhere.

Social media is an inexhaustible source of publicly available information for businesses. Users provide personal information, follow accounts and companies they resonate with, and interact with people around the world. The information provided by social media data includes: Internal data are facts and information that come directly from company systems and are specific to the company. In almost all cases, internal data cannot be accessed and reviewed by third parties without the express permission of the business unit. With this data, you can analyze which social media platforms do the most work to attract customers. You can change your prices to better reflect a price range that customers are willing to spend in today`s market. You can create a comprehensive set of profiles about the customers you serve and what they are looking for in the shopping experience. When looking at financial data, don`t just look at what makes money for the business.

They also look at where the company is losing money or where earnings growth has stagnated. Internal data provides insight into the company`s current practices and their effectiveness. Internal data collected from sources such as website KPIs and customer surveys is an invaluable tool for evaluating company policies, products and branding, as well as employee productivity. If you plan to use data to make informed decisions for your business, it`s important to know what types of data are available to you. While there are many types of data that can be analyzed, they all fall into one of two categories: internal and external. Sociological datasets may be similar, but the analysis will be more quantitative and divided into categories and variables for statistical analysis. Surveys are the most common tool for obtaining sociological data. Of course, you know a lot of them, for example, customer satisfaction surveys in which you express your opinion about a particular product. Usually, you will be asked to express the opinion on a Likert scale: something like “7 means you are extremely satisfied, 1 means you are extremely dissatisfied”. Depending on how developed your analysis is, working with statistical datasets can become quite complex.

There are also problems in quantifying human behavior and opinion. Obviously, one person`s 7 is likely to be different from another`s, even if they are conceptually similar enough. For our purposes here, we encourage you to focus on the simplicity of your enterprise data analysis. Professional sociologists trained in skills such as multivariate analysis can help when needed, but in general, this type of analysis is useless for day-to-day decision-making and information dissemination. As a student, you will gather information from a variety of sources for your research projects, including books, journal articles, journal articles, thematic databases, and websites. When examining each source, it is important to evaluate each source to determine the quality of the information provided. Common evaluation criteria include: purpose and audience, authority and credibility, accuracy and reliability, timeliness and objectivity or bias. Each of these criteria is explained in more detail below. Different types of external data are available to you. By using data from government, social media, and popular search engines, you can understand not only where your business is now, but also where it should be headed in the future.

Activity 2: Internal and External Sources of Information Your analysis of a particular data set, whether internal or external, is based on the data collected. Anthropology tends to think of the following as data types: Accuracy – Where do they get their information from? Does it have citations and references? Do they use reliable sources or explain how they collected their data? [Direct] or first-hand evidence about an event, object or person and may include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, creative writings, audio and video recordings, speeches and art objects. Interviews, surveys, fieldwork and Internet communication via email, blogs, mailing lists and focus groups are also primary sources. Financial data can be analyzed regularly over different time stages. If you want to know which time is best to sell, you can benefit from daily reports. If you want to see the ebb and flow of your profit margins over time, it`s best to collect financial data to analyze over multiple quarters or years. In the digital age of marketing, data is your company`s most valuable asset. The insights gained through data collection and analysis can help you evaluate your company`s performance on all fronts. List the names of the internal and external sources of information that you use to identify issues relevant to your strategy.

Describe the information you can get from each source that feeds into a sustainability policy and implementation strategies. With HR data, you can see which policies are working (and which are not). Although company management and human resources staff work very hard to establish best practices and company policies, it is important to regularly re-evaluate these policies. HR data can show you whether these policies are having a positive impact on recruitment, retention, efficiency, and employee satisfaction. Returning to Martha`s case, we recall that her project explores the impact of the Human Fund on the homeless of downtown Chicago. Your basic reading would certainly involve looking at all the data available in your own organization. Depending on where they are and who they work for, this data may be readily available, or their use may require some sort of interdepartmental – or at least cross-team – authorization and access. Hopefully, she will be able to get her hands on internal information such as the number of participants in the Human Fund, find information on how long individuals have participated in the program, or get figures on the cost of the program to the company, etc. The Ithaca College Library defines primary sources as:[1] Adapted from Mandalios, J. (2013). RADAR: An approach to help students evaluate Internet sources. Journal of Information Science, 39(4), 470-478.

Companies rarely look at just one type of internal data. Each type of internal data offers a different insight into the inner workings of the business. To get a holistic understanding of your business, it`s best to collect all three types of data for analysis. Internal data is data about your organization derived from internal primary sources. An HR report on sales and hiring or accounting or finance finances are common examples. Note that an article in a business magazine about your company`s talent management would be a secondary source, even if it references internal data – originally a primary source. Internal data is generally not available outside the organization unless the organization is mandated to prepare such reports, for example publicly traded companies are required to file a large number of reports with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Depending on the size of your organization, having your own public repositories can be a great source of material for your corporate reports. While sales data focuses on the company`s interactions with customers, HR data focuses on the company`s interactions with its employees. This data can be used to make decisions about company culture, policies and employee training plans.

Human resources data can include information such as: While internal data allows you to see how your company interacts with its employees, the market, and the individual customer, external data allows you to see how your company fits into the global zeitgeist. It can help you learn more about your company`s competitive landscape and reputation. It can even provide information on various economic, social, or political trends that can impact your business. This information, often collected as part of efforts such as the census, provides companies with important information about the current market and future trends. Businesses can use search engine data to shape their marketing and engagement strategies.

If the policyholder does not pay the premiums, carries a higher risk or presents false facts, the contract becomes voidable. Errors on the part of the insurer can also result in unenforceable contracts. Because of their specificity and many nuances, contract laws are not easy to understand. An experienced business lawyer can help you draft your contract and avoid mistakes that could invalidate or cancel it. In case of breach of contract, your lawyer is your legal representative in court. Even if a contract exists, it does not have to be enforceable. There are a number of reasons why a court might not be able to enforce a contract. It is often about protecting people from unfairness in the negotiation process or in the substance of the treaty itself. In such circumstances, a contract may be cancelled. A similar situation arises when a person with a mental disability enters into a contract.

In some cases, people with mental health issues are not perceived to be able to understand what they are getting into. As a result, they may not realize that they are entering into a contract. This makes these contracts subsequently voidable for both parties. Binnall Law Group, PLLC is a commercial litigation firm based in Alexandria, Virginia, serving a range of clients in Virginia, Maryland, and the Washington DC metropolitan area. We have extensive experience representing the interests of plaintiffs and defendants in various infringement litigation, including those involving circumstances that constitute a “valid but voidable” agreement. One party has breached an obligation to the other party in connection with the conclusion of the contract – a so-called breach of contract. If one party fails to meet its part of the transaction, the other party will be released from its obligations under the terms of the Agreement. For example, if you agree to buy a home for $500,000 with no financing options, but later discover that you can`t get a loan, you may be able to go bankrupt and not lose your down payment. This is because most contracts include language stating that the buyer can cancel if they don`t receive financing within a certain timeframe – usually 30 days from the time the contract becomes binding. For example, if one party threatens to burn down another party`s house if it does not sign a contract, that contract is likely to become invalid because it was entered into under duress. Contracts that are not mutually agreed by the parties are voidable.

Without proper consent, there is a high probability that contracts will become voidable. The above remedies for voidable contracts may protect them from fraud. According to the judiciary, parties who enter without consent show no desire to participate. For example, in the case of questionable contract real property, such incidents often occur when the party`s consent is illegal. I am an independent practitioner and the founding attorney of Uzay Law, PLLC, which provides immigration and contract legal services. I am admitted to the Texas bar. Prior to practicing law, I worked as a film producer and consultant in New York City for over fifteen years. I am fluent in English and Turkish. In addition, a court may allow the “less culpable” party to recover consideration already awarded under the void agreement. While this may lead to possible injustice between the parties, the purpose of this rule is to prevent future illegal behavior.

Note, however, that a voidable contract is different from a void contract. Void contracts cannot be legally enforced, period. The law treats them as if no agreement had ever been reached. For example, an agreement to perform an illegal act is a void contract. A voidable contract, on the other hand, may be declared null and void by a party if the latter so wishes. A voidable contract is a formal agreement that one of the parties cannot practice or enforce due to certain legal loopholes. This contract allows the parties to exercise or reject an agreement. This is a false statement or statement by one of the parties. Its main purpose is to get the other person to conclude the contract through verbal terms. As a result, it misleads the other party. However, if a party is misinterpreted, it must prove how it relied on a false allegation before entering into the contract.

In addition, they also have the right to withdraw from the contract. The contract may also be considered null and void if an unlawful object or consideration is included in the contract. This can include the promise of sex, an illegal substance, or anything else that causes one or both parties to break the law. Bob makes a deal with a music label to split royalties from his new album 50/50. However, at the time of this agreement, Bob had been drinking at the bar for several hours and was heavily drunk. Due to the fact that Bob was legally incapable at the time of entering into the contract, this is a void contract. A review of certain elements of a contract can help determine what may cause a contract to be invalid. Voidable is a term used to describe a contract or other legal document that is valid but can be declared void by one of the parties, but only if that party so wishes. 5. Legal action may be taken to assess the situation and determine whether the contract is void or not.

Those involved in a breach may not realize that there is a functional difference between void and voidable contracts. That difference could have important implications for the present case. If both parties misunderstood a fact during a contract negotiation (for example, if one of the parties misunderstands that they will travel out of state in their new employment after being hired), that contract may be cancelled. Various reasons can make an agreement voidable. It involves misinterpretation, cheating, deception, minor and similar things. However, if a person nevertheless enters into such a contract, there is a high probability of engaging in fraud. According to the questionable contracts section, there are some reasons that contribute to negative consequences. Here are the causes of binding contracts: Suppose a situation similar to the previous example. This time, Bob is underage and has not drunk anything. Since Bob is a minor, the contract is immediately voidable. However, since he was not incompetent, the contract is valid.

Bob has the option to retain or terminate the contract at any time. For example, if it is later found that one of the parties was unable to enter into a legally enforceable contract when the original was approved, that party may ratify the contract if it is found to have legal capacity. A void contract is not a valid contract. Such a contract is unenforceable from the outset, so the parties involved will not be bound by its terms. Contracts that require parties to engage in any type of illegal activity are inherently void, as are contracts signed by minors. Even if the terms of a contract can no longer be fulfilled, for example in the event of the death of a party, the contract becomes invalid. The following situations result in the nullity of a contract: Elbert Thomas is the founder of Thomas Law Group, LLC. Elbert is proficient in drafting contracts, drafting, reviewing and negotiating various commercial contracts and letters of request in industries such as construction, personal and professional services, non-profit organizations and real estate. In addition, Elbert is also experienced in start-ups, small start-ups, corporate contract drafting and estate planning. Voidable contracts are not really valid and enforceable, although a party who has been disadvantaged due to circumstances related to the contract (for example, if it was compelled to enter into the contract) may choose to “cancel” it, thus rendering it unenforceable by law. In other words, a voidable contract is a contract for which a party has the right to terminate it prematurely if it so wishes. This allows the aggrieved party to continue a contract if it is appropriate for him or to terminate it on his own terms.

Sometimes the parties are not aware of these facts and enter into such contracts by default. In such a case, they can take certain legal remedies to avoid infringements. Let`s look at a few steps in dealing with cancellable contracts: Contracts are everywhere in the world of real estate, from purchase and sale contracts to leases. Some of these agreements are voidable because they have not satisfied conditions or contain conditions that cannot be enforced under state law. If a contract is voidable, either party may terminate or revoke the contract. The parties to a void contract may not sue the other party for non-performance of the contract and must return to the original party all benefits received. In the case of voidable contracts, the party negatively affected by the problem may bring an action for damages. A voidable contract is initially considered legal and enforceable, but may be rejected by a party if it is determined that the contract is defective. If a party with the right to object chooses not to reject the Agreement despite the defect, the Agreement will remain valid and enforceable. In most cases, only one of the parties will be harmed if they accept a voidable contract in which that party does not acknowledge the misrepresentation or fraud of the other party. After graduating from the University of Chicago School of Law in 2002, Clara spent eight years in private practice, representing clients in complex areas of commercial real estate, mergers and acquisitions, branding and other transactional matters.

Clara then worked as in-house counsel for a large financial services company, where she handled intellectual property, supplier contracts, technology, privacy, cybersecurity, licensing, marketing and other general operations.

The amount of money raised by the shareholders of a company is called registered capital. It represents the par value of the total number of outstanding shares of a company in accounting. Companies can disclose many different types of registered capital. Examples of these conditions include approved capital, issued, subscribed, not issued, called, paid, etc. Companies issue shares to raise funds by diluting shareholders` initial stakes. The price of a stock may fluctuate from time to time. Therefore, it is better to invest wisely in the stock market. In addition, many people are baffled by the distinction between stocks and social capital. A company`s share capital is the money raised by selling shares to investors, while a shareholder`s share is the percentage of money paid to the company. The different types of share capital are listed below: The subscribed capital of a company includes the outstanding share capital.

Operating assets such as bank reserves, book debts, accounts receivable, etc. provide this capital. These funds include funds used for the core operations of a business. Capital assets, which include a company`s fixed assets, are also closely related. The minimum capital is subject to a number of restrictions. Companies are not able to use this money as collateral or convert it into ordinary capital. Companies, on the other hand, can have it revoked by a special court order. Share capital reflects capital that is not available unless the company is liquidated. Reserve capital is the amount of stock a company cannot sell unless it goes bankrupt. These shares are usually issued following a special resolution that receives more than three-quarters of the votes.

Companies also cannot amend their articles of association to annul this election. The share capital has a specific objective: to facilitate liquidation. The paid-up capital is the part of the called-up capital paid in by the shareholder. The shareholder does not have to pay the amount required by the company. The shareholder may pay half of the called-up capital, the so-called compulsory capital, to the company. Sometimes shares are allocated for cashless consideration, most often when Company A acquires Company B for shares (new shares issued by Company A). Here, the share capital is increased to the nominal value of the new shares and the merger reserve to the remaining amount of the price of company B. In the case of debt capitalization, can directors issue as many or as few shares as they wish (assuming the shares are paid up at least in par value)? Are there other factors that could influence this decision? For the purposes of these questions and answers, it was assumed that the parties were limited liability companies holding shares of the same group and that no part of their group was listed. In this case, intra-group liabilities within a private group shall be the subject of a debt-for-equity swap in which shares are issued in return for the total or partial discharge of the bond. The way private company shares are allocated and paid for is relatively flexible.

The following general rules apply: • A company cannot allocate its shares at a discount, i.e. with a nominal value lower than its nominal value. • if its articles of association so permit, a company may, when issuing shares, provide that there are differences between the shareholders of the share capital, since it does not contain retained profits: it consists only of the shareholders who have been contributed to the company by the purchase of shares. Call-up capital is that part of the subscribed capital which includes the remuneration of the shareholder. The capital is not given to the company in its entirety at once. It shall use part of the subscribed capital when it is needed in instalments. Uncalled capital refers to the remainder of the subscribed capital. In practice, the term “par value” has very little meaning, since shares generally represent a residual claim; They do not endow their owners with a fixed amount. In some jurisdictions, par values of shares have been eliminated or made optional, allowing a company to issue shares with no par value. In this case, from an accounting point of view, the entire share capital of the company is premium. The part of the issued capital that has been sold to the public is called subscribed capital.

The issued capital need not be fully subscribed by the public. This is the portion of the issued capital for which the company has received an application. Let`s take an example: if a company issues 16,000 shares of one hundred rupees each, and the public only asks for 12,000, the issued capital is Rs 16 lakh and the subscribed capital is Rs 12 lakh. The total number of outstanding shares and own shares corresponds to the number of shares issued. Share capital is called the capital raised by the company through the issuance of shares to investors. Share capital includes the capital generated by the funds generated by the issuance of shares against contributions in cash or in kind. In accounting, the share capital of a company is the nominal value of the issued shares (i.e. the sum of their nominal values, sometimes indicated on share certificates). If the allocation price of the shares is higher than par value, as in the case of a rights issue, the shares are sold at a premium (variously referred to as an issue premium, additional paid-up capital or paid-up capital above par).

Usually, social capital is the sum of social capital and prime share capital. Most jurisdictions do not allow a company to issue shares below par value, but if they are allowed, they are issued at a discount or partially paid-up. As a rule, the share capital can be found in the company`s balance sheet under the heading “Shareholders` Fund”. Physical capital is paid-up capital, which represents the amount paid by shareholders. It is also added to the liabilities of the balance sheet to complete the column. The money raised by the company by issuing shares to the general public is called registered capital. Simply put, registered capital refers to the money invested in a company by its shareholders. It is a long-term source of capital where shareholders receive a portion of the ownership of the company. The term capital usually refers to the amount of money used to start a business. It has been used in various contexts in different areas of Indian Companies Act, but generally refers to money subscribed under the company`s articles of association. The assets with which the business is conducted are called capital.

There are different types of registered capital on the market. The total par value of a company`s shares is called share capital. The terms “capital” and “share capital” were considered interchangeable in the corporate context. The capital of the company must be indicated in the articles of association of the company. When a company issues shares to its shareholders, it expects them to pay for it. However, you can choose not to. Uncalled share capital refers to shares that have been issued but not yet claimed. This capital is also linked to the contingent liabilities of shareholders. This is the balance after deduction of call-up capital of the total number of shares allocated. The portion of the authorized share capital issued to the public for subscription is called issued share capital.

Enter the numerator noun in the plural for each singular noun in parentheses. A plural possessive noun is a plural noun that indicates possession of something. If two or more names each have their own separate possession of one or more names, we would make each name of the property possessive. In the case of a noun where both forms end in an “s”, it may be necessary to rephrase the sentence to avoid ambiguity and to clarify whether you are referring to a singular or plural noun: Still not sure if you are using the plural correctly? Order an English grammar check to make sure your apostrophe is used in the right place at the right time. To form an owner plural noun, first form the plural of the singular noun. Many singular nouns can be plural by adding -s or -es to the end of the noun: rope > strings, carriage > cars, church > churches, glass > glasses. It depends on the accuracy of your meaning. If you write “the door handle of the car”, this could be correct, but it could also technically indicate that the car has a door handle. Most cars have more than one door and a door handle, so when you write “car door handle,” you identify the handle of a particular car door under what could be, say, four doors. Remember, the apostrophe never refers to the plural form of a noun. The students searched for their missing books. (plural) Plural possessives indicate when there is more than one noun and indicate possession of something. The possessive of most plural nouns is formed only by adding an apostrophe: however, in more specific contexts, the plural form can also be possession, for example in relation to different types of possessions or a collection of possessions.

If the singular and plural of a noun both end in an “s”, the possessive for both is formed by adding a single apostrophe: After forming the plural of the noun, add an apostrophe (`) if the plural noun ends in -s or -es: strings`, cars`, churches`, laaves`. If the plural noun does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and an s: mouse, men, feet. Note that some irregular plural nouns are identical to their singular forms (e.g., plane, deer, sheep, furniture). In these cases, we would apply the same principles to form the possessive plural for a noun that does not end in -s. Some plural nouns are formed by forming the first word of the plural expression: sisters-in-law, passers-by, lawyers in general. In these cases, we formed the possessive plural by making the last word of the possessive expression: sisters-in-law, passers-by, lawyers in general. Let`s look at more examples of regular and irregular plural-possessive nouns: The rule of thumb is simple: use the apostrophe to indicate possession, not a plural. Exceptions to the rule may seem confusing: yours has no apostrophe and is not possessive. Still, with a little attention, you can learn the rules and exceptions. Some nouns are irregular, so they form the plural other than by adding -s or -es: bread > bread, mouse > mouse, man > men, foot > feet. To determine this, try reading your sentence aloud to see if the plural possessive sounds particularly unpleasant. For example, “The Rodgerse house is big” is a bit full, so you can change the sentence to “The Rodgers family has a big house.” Sometimes it is also advisable to rephrase a sentence to avoid the use of cumbersome possessive plurals.

There`s no hard and fast rule for this, and both formulations will be correct, so go ahead and use what you think is best. The glass fragments left a glittering trail on the floor. (singular possessive) Have you seen the stained glass windows of the churches? (possessive plural) Knowing when and where to add the apostrophe to the pluralpossessive can be difficult. To make matters worse, the correct use sometimes seems and sounds wrong. We hope that by the end of this article, you will have a better understanding of possessive plurals and know how and when to use them. In more general and commonly used contexts, the plural form will also be possession. I really like the sound of the string on this guitar. (singular possessive) I really like the sound of the strings on this guitar. (possessive plural) What is the purpose of the foot for this table? (singular possessive) What is the purpose of the legs for this table? (possessive plural) Form the possessive case of a plural noun by adding an apostrophe after the last letter if it is an s, or by adding `s if the last letter is not an s. The first sentence contains a singular possessive (dogs): the food belongs to a dog. The second sentence tells us that food belongs to more than one dog, through a plural-possessive noun, dogs.” An exception to this rule is the possessive of plural nouns that do not end in “s”.

These are formed by adding an apostrophe and an “s” to the noun: some animal names can also form the plural by keeping the singular or by adding -s or -es: shrimp > shrimp or shrimp, fish > fish or fish. Again, we would treat the plural possessive form according to the end of the word, as we discussed: Do you struggle with plural possessives? If so, don`t feel bad because you`re not alone! A recent survey found that almost half of the 2,000 Britons surveyed did not know how to use an apostrophe correctly and that punctuation of plural possessives was the most common apostrophe error. Perhaps you are just wondering what a plural possessive is; Let`s start with that. If there is more than one noun, it is plural. Most nouns are pluralized by adding an “s” at the end, although, as with so many things in the English language, there are exceptions (e.g., tooth and teeth). A name is possessive when it shows possession or possession of something. Most singular nouns are made possessive by adding an apostrophe and an “s” at the end: Note that contractions are often considered too informal for academic writing.

In addition, Pennsylvania allows a will to be drawn up without witnesses if it is handwritten by the testator and signed at the end. 20 Pa.C.S. § 2502. This is called a “holograph will”. Holograph wills offer some convenience, but they carry the risk of making mistakes that could invalidate a will. When a will is filed in court, it can be difficult to find witnesses and bring them all to court, let alone court costs. So, you should definitely prove your will yourself to help your loved ones avoid this hassle. In Pennsylvania, you can revive an Old Testament by revoking your New Testament in writing and declaring in writing that you intend to revive your Old Testament. You will not revive our old will by simply destroying your new. Here are some common examples of tasks that require one estate to remain open longer than others: In Pennsylvania, anyone can make a will that is eighteen (18) years old and in their own right.

(See: Section 2501) “Common sense” generally means someone who has not been found incompetent in a previous court case. As long as a will has met all the requirements of the state in which you live or the state in which you sign the will, the will is valid, no state has made it a requirement for a valid will when a lawyer drafts the document. The problem, of course, is that unless you`re an estate planning lawyer, you probably don`t know what it takes to make a valid will or trust. A lawyer who focuses solely on wills and trusts can help you ensure that your wishes are respected after your death. A will can serve a variety of purposes, including giving the testator the opportunity to specify in detail how the property is to be divided after death. In general, Pennsylvania law allows you to dispose of your property as you see fit, with a few exceptions that are described in more detail below. Learn more about essential legal documents for major life transitions HERE If Healthcare Friend can`t or won`t serve as an agent, I call Backup Friend instead. After signing your will, you should keep it in a safe and easily accessible place.

Our clients often keep their original documents in our flame retardant records, where they cannot be easily destroyed or stolen. Make sure the person you appointed as your personal representative knows where you filed your will. If you keep your documents on file with fireproof, your personal representative only needs to prove that you are deceased for the documents to be disclosed to them. No. The joint property passes to the other co-owner upon your death, and the assets “in trust for” pass to the person you have designated as the beneficiary. It is a common and erroneous mistake to think that when writing a will, its terms cover an IRA, life insurance policy, or bank account that names a beneficiary. Your lawyer should work with you to review all of your accounts, deeds, and IRAs to ensure your assets are transferred to the right person when you die. “Wills are a great tool for making sure your assets go to the people you want after you die,” says Joanna Jarzebowska, director of client admissions for the SeniorLAW Center, a nonprofit legal practice agency that serves seniors in Philadelphia. In a will, you can choose exactly who you want to inherit from your property. In Pennsylvania, it is not necessary for anyone to sign your will; However, it is customary for at least two people to attend the signing of your will. Writing a Pennsylvania will is important if you want to have control over the distribution of real estate and personal property after your death.

Pennsylvania wills give the person who makes the will, the testator, the opportunity to support a spouse, children, other relatives, and pets after their death. Your will should include a number of things, including: Another benefit of a Pennsylvania will is that you can appoint someone as your children`s legal guardian and/or deal with property that has been left to minor children. Step 7 (optional) – Certification – The notary will certify all signatures and complete the document. Name of an executor and backup if your initial choice can`t or won`t fulfill the role. Your executor will carry out the wishes contained in your will and take care of all remaining financial matters for your estate. There are also other factors to consider, such as appointing a custodian for minor children or pets, if you have any, or including an “arrears clause” (which covers assets not listed in your will). Make sure you take the time to think carefully about what you want. Note: State laws are constantly changing: contact an estate planning attorney in Pennsylvania or do your own legal research to review the state laws you`re looking for. In addition to wills, as described above, Pennsylvania also recognizes holograph (handwritten) wills as valid legal documents. In Pennsylvania, a handwritten will must be executed in the same way as any other will, as explained above, to be valid. A will is one of the most important legal documents a person can create in their lifetime. When a person dies without a will, they are said to have died “intestate intestate,” and state laws determine how and to whom the person`s assets are distributed.

A will must meet the legal requirements of the state to be valid. Most states also accept a will signed in another state if the document is a valid will under the law of that state. The terms and conditions of a valid will are generally as follows: (a) the document must be in writing (i.e. typed or printed), (b) signed by the person making the will (usually called a “testator” or “testator”), and (c) signed by two witnesses present to witness the execution of the document by the manufacturer; and who also witnessed each other to sign the document. If you have or adopt a child after the execution of the will, that new child will take over the portion of your estate after your surviving spouse to which he or she would have been entitled if you had died without a will. Pennsylvania law treats the Old Testament in two ways. First, if you have an old will, you can cancel it by creating a new one. A will usually contains a statement that it revokes (annuls) all previous wills.

Second, a will can be annulled simply by physically destroying it. 20 Pa.C.S. § 2505. Depending on who you want to disinherit, the answer varies. In Pennsylvania, as in other states, you don`t have to leave anything for your children. You can disinherit some or all of your children as you wish. However, in Pennsylvania, your spouse is entitled to a portion of your estate unless you have a valid postal or prenuptial agreement, even if you intentionally excluded it from your will. In Pennsylvania, your spouse has the right to vote against your estate and receive an optional 1/3 share of your total estate, whether or not you have an existing valid will. Whether a living trust is better for you than a will depends on the value of the cost of the additional options it offers.

Program Outcomes: Young women graduates must pass a bar exam to practice law in the United States. Only after passing the bar exam can students become admitted lawyers. In the Republic of Ireland, law degrees are offered in the same way as in the United Kingdom. While the constituent universities of the National University of Ireland award a Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.) as a Principal Bachelor of Laws, it is actually a common law degree that goes directly to an LL.B. degree elsewhere. The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) is the degree usually awarded by other universities and colleges in Ireland. While the number of law students attending law schools with college degrees increased in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of institutions apparently used the JD/LLB distinction to encourage prospective law students to complete their bachelor`s degree before beginning law school. (If they didn`t, they got the bachelor`s degree, not the doctorate.) A master`s degree in conflict resolution can be beneficial for professionals who wish to develop conflict resolution and negotiation skills to better manage conflict and manage difficult situations. MDR programs can attract professionals interested in resolving conflicts between parties, managing change or promoting communication within their organization, and identifying workplace issues before they arise.

A degree from JD, the American law degree, is a three-year professional degree. A JD is the minimum level of training for lawyers. The J.D. is considered a professional doctorate. The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not consider a J.D. degree equivalent to a research doctorate that would award the recipient the title of “doctor.” I received an LLB from the University of North Carolina School of Law in 1963 after studying at the University of Wisconsin for three years. In 1969, I received a letter from the Dean of the Faculty of Law saying that I was not eligible for a Young Women degree because I did not have a bachelor`s degree. Of course, this made no logical sense to me, as I had completed three years of law school with as much success as my college classmates. I am of the opinion that law schools decided to award Juri`s doctorate because it seemed more prestigious. The nomenclature has made no difference to the legal community in terms of its ability to practice law.

Today, this problem will obviously never arise, because admission to all law schools requires a bachelor`s degree. Law school applicants must already have a bachelor`s degree. It usually takes three years to graduate from Young Women, after which the graduate must pass the bar exam to practice law. Each state and the District of Columbia have its own bar exam. It turned out that there was nothing unique about Marquette awarding both JD and LL.B. degrees in the 1920s and 1930s. The practice was particularly widespread, it seems, in the Midwest. Nice read. The profession has continued to evolve and it appears that industry standards have been put in place to improve the practice of the legal profession. I think I would want someone with a JD rather than someone with an LLB if I needed a replacement for a death sentence. If you are ready to pursue a bachelor`s degree, take the LSAT and complete 3 years of graduate law (JD).

So I`m willing to pay for those services. The first state examination in law corresponds in part to the bar examination, because the second state examination in law is the German equivalent of the bar examination in the United States. In some universities, you will become either “Licentiatus iuris”, Magister iuris or Diplom-Rechts. It is a master`s degree. [10] Upon completion of a Bachelor of Laws, you have the option of enrolling in an LL.M, a two-year program open to students with a bachelor`s degree in an area of law. This is a graduate degree for those who do not wish to continue the practice of law after earning a law degree. The role is to assist lawyers, such as paralegals or articling students. Lois Kuenzli Collins was enrolled in law school when the Young Women option was created and, like most of her classmates, she was not eligible for the “graduate” degree. However, his memory of the difference between the two degrees probably explains his enthusiasm forty years later, when his degree went from an LL.B. to a J.D. There were also a few other variations of the Young Women diploma. In Georgetown, in the 1930s, you could get a JD degree, but only after an LL.B.

degree, which made it more like an LL.M. or S.J.D. degree. Another variation occurred at William & Mary, where graduates spent much of the 20th century. They received a BCL degree rather than an LL.B.

A nominal account is an account in which all accounting transactions for a financial period are recorded, with the balances transferred to permanent accounts. This allows the balances to reset and the process to start all over again. Income, expenses, profits and losses are the most common nominal accounts. Charge all expenses and losses, credit all profits and gains according to Golden Rule 3. Several tax authorities such as indirect taxes and income tax depend on the accounts retained by management for the concession of tax matters. As promised at the beginning of this essay, we are returning to our golden accounting standards. Each of the laws is easy to understand on its own. The first step is to identify the accounts involved in the above transactions and classify them accordingly. The golden rules of accounting allow anyone to be an accountant. You just need to understand the account types and then apply the rules conscientiously. When setting up the accounting of a new company, a series of accounts is configured to record all expected business transactions. Typical accounts linked to almost all businesses include: cash, accounts receivable, inventory, accounts payable, and retained earnings.

Each account can be further broken down to provide additional details as needed. For example: accounts receivable can be broken down to show each customer who owes money to the company. Simply put, if Bob, Dave and Roger owe money to the company, the receivable account contains a separate account for Bob, Dave and Roger. These 3 accounts would be summed and presented as a single figure (i.e. the sum of trade receivables) in the balance sheet. All the accounts of a company are grouped and summarized in the balance sheet in 3 sections: assets, liabilities and equity. Before diving into the golden principles of accounting, you need to refresh everything related to debit and credit. Answer: With the help of accounting rules, companies can use them uniformly to interpret the results consistently. It also makes it easier to compare financial reports and provides information to accounting users. Real accounts are assets. Personal accounts are the liabilities and equity of the owners and represent the individuals and businesses that have invested in the business. Nominal accounts are income, expenses, profits and losses.

The accounting officers close the accounts at the end of each accounting period. [21] This method is used in the United Kingdom, where it is simply referred to as the traditional approach. [14] While traditional rules revolved around three accounts – real, personal and nominal, the modern version classifies accounts into six types, dividing transactions into these categories, which affects the debit and credit aspects. These accounts include assets, liabilities, income, expenses, capital and withdrawals. Bank accounts and cash are real accounts and so the golden rule is: keeping accounts of financial transactions according to the golden rules of accounting offers certain advantages. The golden rules of accounting include a set of rules to record daily transactions in the double-entry accounting system. Here, each transaction has an equal and opposite effect on two sides (debit and credit side). These rules help organizations maintain consistency and consistency when recording, storing, and referencing transactional data. A general ledger account is a personal account. This category includes all accounts linked to individuals, whether they are natural persons such as natural persons or legal persons such as companies. When one company receives something from another company or person, the first company becomes the recipient. The second business or person from whom it was received becomes the donor in the case of a personal account.

Charge the recipient, credit the donor, says Golden Rule 1. The third rule applies to registered accounts. The Nominal Accounting Guideline states that the closing balance of a real account is held and carried forward to the end of the fiscal year. The amounts carried over become the opening balance sheets for the following financial year. Assets, liabilities and equity are often the subjects of these accounts. To debit what comes in, credit what comes out, it is written in Golden Rule 2. When a business receives something of value (goods or goods), it is debited from the books in a real account. When something of value leaves the company, it is noted as credited in the books. Take a look at some examples of this first golden rule below. Each process is followed by a set of rules that are universally applicable and followed by all. These rules define the process of basic functions to bring consistency to the presentation and overall structure of the concept. Each of the following accounts is either an asset account (A), an offsetting account (CA), a liability account (L), an equity account (SE), a turnover (Rev), an expense account (Exp) or a dividend account (Div).

First, let`s identify the different accounts involved and the types of accounts for each of the transactions: a debit is an entry on the left side of an account while a credit is a reservation on the right. The former experiences an increase in an asset or expenditure account, while there is a decrease in the income, liabilities and equity accounts. Loans, on the other hand, are completely opposite, i.e. Decrease in an asset or expense account during an increase in sales, liabilities and equity accounts. The recipient debit, credit to the donor, is the rule that applies to personal accounts, where the recipient is the person who receives the goods or services for money and the donor is the entity offering the goods or services. With regard to the nature of all accounts, accounting rules have been established. For each account, there are a number of golden rules and therefore there are three golden rules of accounting. The golden rules define the processing of all transactions made by the company.

The CVA is a formal agreement with creditors on repayment. As a business rescue mechanism, it is designed to protect viable businesses from insolvency and provide creditors with the best return. This page will help you understand what a voluntary enterprise agreement does, how it works, and how it can help you stop creditor pressure and disrupt your business. It is similar to an individual voluntary agreement (IVA), but for companies. A voluntary enterprise agreement is a legal agreement between an insolvent limited liability company and its creditors. Under UK insolvency law, an insolvent company can enter into a voluntary enterprise agreement (CVA). The CVA is a form of composition, similar to the Individual Voluntary Arrangement (IVA), in which insolvency proceedings allow a company with debt problems or an insolvent company to enter into a voluntary agreement with its commercial creditors to repay all or part of its corporate debt over an agreed period. [ref. needed] The CVA application may be made with the consent of all directors of the corporation, the legal administrators of the corporation or the designated liquidator of the corporation.

[1] An AVC that has been appropriately worded will describe exactly what happens in the event of a violation of its terms. It may terminate automatically, but generally an AVC will determine instances of default and empower or require the supervisor to take further action in such circumstances. Finally, it`s ALSO a good deal for creditors as they keep a customer and recoup some of their debt over time, typically between 25p and 100p for every £1 of debt, depending on what your business can afford to pay off. Much depends on the total number of creditors, employees, the position of the bank and the need to negotiate. Ultimately, a voluntary agreement from a company is an agreement and an agreement involves conversations with the people and stakeholders of the company. This helps if the company has good financial information and there is no condensed timeline due to aggressive lawsuit from creditors. This can usually be avoided by taking early action. Yes, an AVC is legally binding on all creditors. Once the approval has been reported to the court, there is a 28-day period during which creditors can appeal. A corporation or limited liability partnership (LLP) may apply if the directors or members agree. A CVA is the best rescue tool for a company that is ready for the future but burdened by historical debt.

Directors who retain control are able to resolve their current financial problems, provided they have addressed the problems that caused the debt in the first place. You can only get an AVC through an insolvency administrator. They will charge you for the CVA application and administration. Retail expert Claire Fox talks about turnaround time, cost reduction, and why CVAs rarely work on today`s rough street. The CVA mechanism is there to help companies in financial difficulty that may be late in paying taxes, have cash flow problems or face legal proceedings. To ease the pressure, a debt repayment plan can be developed to ensure that creditors get something in return over the years. When a company is under administration or in liquidation, creditors often see very little recovery of their claims. If a struggling business with the prospect of becoming profitable again seems viable and the directors are willing to move on, an CVA can be an ideal way to protect you from lawsuits from creditors. The terms of a CVA will likely mean lower monthly expenses for the indebted company and result in a binding contract for all creditors, increasing the likelihood of return. Simply, once we are led, all creditors negotiate with us and we can effectively freeze payments to creditors until an agreement is reached. Some consultants say that a voluntary agreement of the company is paid by the creditors. This is somewhat misleading and it is likely that personal guarantees will be required to cover payments in the company`s voluntary agreement and other costs.

What happens if it fails??? Make a mistake. You will issue a large invoice for which you will be personally responsible. We do not require any personal guarantees. To discuss the amount we charge, please call us on 0800 970 0539 The CVA will then commence as soon as the vote has taken place by the meeting of creditors. Your business then makes the scheduled payments to creditors through the insolvency administrator under the debt repayment agreement. The Company is protected by the Agreement, provided that all scheduled payments are made. If the company defaults, it is likely that it will be liquidated by compulsory liquidation. The retail and consumer goods industries are under increasing pressure. Consumers are tightening their belts with the continued fragility of the UK economy and its impact.

In the past, it was assumed that about 60% of CVAs would fail. More recently, however, there have been a number of strokes, particularly in retail and casual dining, that target a specific perceived financial imbalance between landlord and tenant. It remains to be seen whether these CVAs, as well as more traditional CVAs, will continue to have a high default rate, or whether they have established themselves as a useful restructuring tool that provides flexibility and control and allows for business continuation. For the proposal to be accepted, at least 75% of creditors (based on the value of the debt) must agree to the terms of the proposal. If at least 75% of creditors (depending on the value of the debt) accept the proposal, the CVA is approved; It is also possible for an administrator or liquidator to propose an AVC to end this process. Caffe Nero, according to which an action brought by an owner was not successful without it being found that there had been unjust discrimination or material irregularity if the decision-making procedure for voting on CVA`s proposals had not been postponed in order to consider an offer to purchase the company. Although the process has similarities, it differs from that of the administration. A company would go bankrupt if it were officially insolvent but remained viable.

AVCs are usually performed before the time of insolvency to avoid reaching this state. The main costs you will incur when setting up the agreement are the costs of hiring a receiver to formulate and submit the CVA proposal on your behalf. This is called a nominee fee and varies depending on the amount of work, the details of your case, and the bankruptcy company you want to deal with.

And again, as an independent award, the famous Greenman product liability case would be cited in a California court as: For the meaning of the different BVerfG case numbers, see the German article. Since there are no official or unofficial rapporteurs who regularly publish the decisions of the Court of Appeal and other lower courts, the citation of their decisions is in the same format as cases that are not reported in either the Philippine reports or the SCRA. So: (name of case), (file number), (date of delivery of decision). For the Court of Appeal, file numbers begin with CA-G.R. No., followed by CR for Criminal Law, CV for Civil and SP for the “Special Matters Section”. [16] When citing cases not yet reported in the CSRA or Philippine reports, the above citation is preferred without reference to the CSRA (i.e., Fortich v. Corona, G.R. No. 131457, April 24, 1988). In England and Wales, as in some Commonwealth countries, the abbreviation “R” for rex (king) or regina (queen) is used for cases where the state is a party (usually criminal cases or judicial review cases). If the Attorney General of England and Wales or the Director of Public Prosecution Service (England and Wales) pursues the case, the abbreviation “AG” or “DPP” instead of “R” counsel – Legal advice; A term used to refer to lawyers in a case.

Decisions of the Supreme Court which have not been accepted for official publication are cited in [Federal Court] decision 5C.260/2006 of 30 March 2007 or Federal Court decision 5C.260/2006 of 30 March 2007. In this example, 5C is the Chamber of the Tribunal, 260 is the file number and 2006 is the year the case was opened. State court decisions are published in several places. Many States have their own official rapporteurs who publish the decisions of one or more courts in that State. Journalists who publish the decisions of a state`s highest court are abbreviated with the name of the state (note: this is the traditional abbreviation, not the postal abbreviation), regardless of the journalist`s actual title. Thus, the official reporter of California Supreme Court decisions (titled California Reports) is abbreviated to “Cal”. (or, for subsequent series, “Cal. 2d”, “Cal.3d” or “Cal. 4th”). Answer. These are the details of the above case citation in Germany, there are two types of citations: the full citation of a case and its short form.

For example, in scientific articles, the full citation of a particular case is only used at its first occurrence; After that, its abbreviated form is used. In most law journals, the articles themselves use only the abbreviated form; Full citations of all articles are sometimes summarized at the beginning of this issue of the journal. As of today, [when?] Cases in the Philippines are included in quarterly expenditures. Supreme Court Reports Annotated, or SCRA, are cited as such: the diagram below will help you understand how to read and interpret the basics of a case citation. If a decision has not been published in a journalist, other identifying information is required. In general, citations for unreported cases include the name of the court, the date of the decision, and the file number assigned by the court. For example: Sø- og Handelsrettens dom af 3. MAY 2018 I say nr. V-17-17 (judgment of the Maritime and Commercial Court of 3 May in case No.

V-17-17). Some authors format these citations to mimic the “short citation” of published cases. For example, in Furman vs. Georgia, Furman was initially an accused in a murder case. In return, Furman appealed his conviction, and thus became the person who took action against the state. Law Enforcement – Accusing someone of a crime. A prosecutor hears criminal proceedings on behalf of the government. Summary Judgment – A decision made on the basis of statements and evidence presented without trial. It is used when the facts are not disputed and a party is entitled to a judgment under the law. An increasing number of court decisions are not published in stenographers. For example, only 7% of notices in California`s intermediate courts (courts of appeals) are published each year.

This is largely because judges only certify important decisions for publication, due to the massive number of frivolous appeals that go through the courts and the importance of avoiding information overload. [28] Grand jury – A panel of citizens who hear evidence of criminal charges presented by the government and determine whether there are probable grounds to believe the crime was committed. As used in federal criminal cases, “the government” refers to lawyers in the U.S. Attorney`s Office who are pursuing the case. Trial before a grand jury is closed to the public and the person suspected of having committed the crime is not allowed to be present or have a lawyer present. States are not required to appoint grand juries, but the federal government must do so under the Constitution. Jury – Persons selected in accordance with the law and sworn to investigate questions of fact and render a verdict. State court jurors can only be six jurors in some cases. Federal civil prosecutions must have six jurors, criminal prosecutions must have twelve. Transcript – A written, verbatim record of what was said, either in a proceeding such as a trial or in another conversation. The above-mentioned Mabo case would then be cited as follows: Mabo v. Queensland (No.

2) [1992] HCA 23. Case citations are used to find a specific case, both when searching for a case in a print journalist and when accessing it via the Internet or services such as LexisNexis or Westlaw. Evidence – Information contained in witness statements or documents that are used to convince the investigator (judge or jury) to decide the case in favour of one party or the other. Like the U.S. Supreme Court, some very old citations of state cases include an abbreviation of the name of the private publisher or correspondent of the decisions, a state-appointed official who originally collected and published the cases. For example, in Halle v. Glocke, 47 mass. (6 hits.) 431 (1843), the citation refers to volume 47 of the Massachusetts Reports, which, like the United States Reports, was begun in the second half of the 19th century and incorporated a number of earlier privately published editions originally into the series and numbered them from that point on; “6 Met.” refers to Volume 6, originally published privately by Theron Metcalf. An example of a case cited by a journalist that was not included in an officially published series is Pierson v.